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Both Western historians and Chinese nationalists have argued that from early times China had the features of a nation state: a common language, culture, and bureaucracy. This argument is important not only because it affects our understanding of how nations are constructed but also because Chinese nationalism is today a vital ingredient in both the domestic politics of the People's Republic of China and the international relations of East Asia. This book argues that China as it exists today was invented through the construction of a modern state. It describes the attitudes of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Chinese towards identity and ethnicity and how these interacted with the structure of the state. It then describes the development of a new culture as part of the efforts to build a modern nation state that could resist the Western imperial powers. Finally it describes how, during the course of the twentieth century, this new culture tied to modern nationalism has been spread from the cities into rural China. The book argues that China has not been an exception to the process of the invention of nations. Instead, its differences arise from the complexities of the relationship between nationalism and imperialism. Moreover, the role of imperialism was not limited to Western empires: the Manchu Qing empire played quite as significant a role in the construction of the modern Chinese nation state as did imported European ideologies.

List of illustrations vii
General editor's preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Chronology xii
A map of China xiv
Introduction 1
Part I Pre-modern Chinese identity
1 A common culture 9
Structures of the Chinese state 10
The interaction of elite and popular culture 20
2 The Manchu empire 33
The Qing as a non-Han dynasty 33
The Han and the universal empire 44
Part II Constructing a modern nation
3 The world of nation states 55
Changing models of foreign affairs 55
The new modernisers and the origins of nationalism 70
The Boxer Uprising 77
4 The creation of modern nationalism 88
Education 89
Nationalism and revolutionary thought 101
Newspapers and the growth of public opinion 111
The army 118
5 Ethnicity and modernity in the 1911 Revolution 132
The Han nation 132
National identity and the non-Han peoples 139
The five-nation republic 144
Part III Nationalism and imperialism
7 The growth of nationalism as an ideology 169
Student nationalism: the May 4th Movement of 1919 170
Working-class nationalism: the May 30th Movement of 1925 176
The growth of the Nationalist Party 184
8 Nationalism and the party state 190
The rise of the party state 190
Spreading a modern national culture 200
The limits of Nationalist Party rule 203
9 War, nationalism and identity 207
Responses to Japanese aggression 207
The outbreak of war and the rhetoric of national unity 215
The convergence of popular and modern nationalism 219
10 State-building and nation-building 226
Depicting a Communist China 226
Defining the nation 237
Part IV Chinese national identity today
11 The emergence of alternative nationalisms 251
Politicised nationalism 252
Redefinitions 257
The end of empire? 264
Bibliography 269
Index 277
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