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In 1962 a mimeographed sheet of paper fell into my possession. It had been prepared by Ernest Adams of the Philosophy Department at Berkeley as a handout for a colloquim. Headed 'SOME FALLACIES OF FORMAL LOGIC' it simply listed eleven little pieces of reasoning, all in ordinary English, and all absurd. I still have the sheet, and quote a couple of the arguments here to give the idea. • If you throw switch S and switch T, the motor will start. There fore, either if you throw switch S the motor will start, or, if you throw switch T the motor will start . • It is not the case that if John passes history he will graduate. Therefore, John will pass history. The disconcerting thing about these inferences is, of course, that under the customary truth-functional interpretation of and, or, not, and if-then, they are supposed to be valid. What, if anything, is wrong? At first I was not disturbed by the examples. Having at that time consider able personal commitment to rationality in general and formal logic in par ticular, I felt it my duty and found myself easily able (or so I thought) to explain away most of them. But on reflection I had to admit that my expla nations had an ad hoc character, varying suspiciously from example to example.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aims 1
1.2 Beyond Syntax 2
1.3 Bloomfield's Dilemma 3
1.4 The Research Strategy of the Isolable Subsystem 6
1.5 Theories of Language vs. Language Analysis 7
1.6 Theories of Logic 9
1.7 Logico-Linguistics 11
2. INFORMATION AND LANGUAGE 13
2.1 Information States l3
2.2 Input and Output 14
2.3 Information Automata 17
2.4 Language Automata 20
2.5 Black-Box Methodology 27
2.6 The What-Do-You-Know? Game 29
2.7 The Behavior-Analytic Interpretation of Language Automata 32
2.8 The linguistic Priority of the Language Automaton 39
2.9 Languages 42
2.10 Summary 45
3. ON DESCRIBING LANGUAGES 47
3.1 Descriptive Strategies 47
3.2 Descriptive Equivalence 51
3.3 Language Descriptions as Scientific Theories 51
3.4 Basic Evidence Propeties 56
3.5 The Evidence-Gathering Process 62
4. LANGUAGE AND DEDUCTIVE LOGIC 68
4.1 Idealizations 68
4.2 Logical Relationships 73
4.3 Properties of the Logical Relationships 75
4.4 Logics 77
4.5 Infonnative Languages have Incomplete Logics 79
4.6 Quasi-logical Relationships 82
4.7 Quasi-logical Relationships are often Logical 83
4.8 Logic in the Evidence-Gathering Process 86
5 SEMANTICS, AXIOMA TICS 90
5.1 Semantically Structuralizable Languages 90
5.2 Examples of Artifical Semantically Structuralizable Languages 98
5.3 A Fragment of English 105
5.4 Semantics and Deductive Logic 115
5.5 Axiomatic Language Descriptions 117
5.6 Other Language Families 119
5.7 Logic as a Branch of Linguistics 121
5.8 Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics 122
6. MEANING 124
6.1 Purports and Imports 124
6.2 Purport-Import Glossaries 127
6.3 Specialized Glossaries 128
6.4 Synonymy 129
7. LANGUAGE AND INDUCTIVE LOGIC 132
7.1 Credibility Weights 132
7.2 Probability Weights 134
7.3 Deductive Logic in Probability-Weighted Languages 138
7.4 The Semantics of Probability-Weighted Languages 142
7.5 Plausible Inference 148
7.6 Statistical Inference 151
7.7 Inductive Reasoning 155
7.8 Extended Semantics 156
8. 'IF-THEN': A CASE STUDY IN LOGICO-LlNGUISTlC ANALYSIS 158
8.1 Preliminary Statement of Hypotheses to be Tested 158
8.2 History of Hypothesis A 159
8.3 History of Hypothesis B 161
8.4 History of Other Hypotheses 163
8.5 Delineation of Constructions of Interest 163
8.6 The Working Hypothesis of Extended Semantic Structural-
izability 166
8.7 Exact Statement of Hypothesis A 167
8.8 Exact Statement of Hypothesis B 168
8.9 Remarks on Hypothesis B 171
8.10 Contraposition 178
8.11 Methodological Review 180
8.12 The Hypothetical Syllogism 183
8.13 Further Inference Patterns 185
8.14 The Paradoxes of Material Implication 187
8.15 The Second Paradox Re-examined Dynamically 188
8.16 Modus Ponens and Modus Tollens 190
8.17 Order of Premises 191
8.18 Incompatible Conditionals 192
8.19 Self-Contradictory Conditionals 193
8.20 Aristo1e's Slip 194
8.21 Incompleteness of the Rules Governing Conditionals 196
8.22. Logically Disjunct Conditionals 196
8.23 Negations of Conditionals 197
8.24 Conjunctions of Conditionals 199
8.25 Conditionals Containing Other Conditionals 201
8.26 Lewis Carroll's Barbershop Paradox 204
8.27 DiSjunctions of Conditionals 206
8.28 Conclusions about If-then 209
8.29 Further Case Studies 211
8.30 Concluding Remark 211
9. PROBLEM AREAS AND COMPUTER APPLICA TIONS 212
9.1 Choice of Linguistic Unit 212
9.2 Ambiguity 214
9.3 Context-Dependence 219
9.4 Linguistic Incompleteness 223
9.5 Non-declarative Sentences 226
9.6 Physical Realizability 228
9.7 Automatic Question-Answering 230
9.8 Enthymemes, Analyticity 232
9.9 Further Computer Applications 236
9.10 Artificial Intelligence 239
9.11 The Future 241
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