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This book presents a comparative historical analysis of state-led nationalist movements in Chinese history, which counters current claims that popular nationalism in present-day China is strong enough to sustain costly expansionist wars. Popular nationalism in China has been on the rise since the early 1990s to the concern of many observers. Some have even asked whether China will become another Germany. A comparative historical analysis of pre-war and wartime nationalist mobilization helps us better understand how individuals formulate their opinions under extreme conditions. It concludes that the public's weak perception of foreign threats, taken together with pro-minority domestic institutions, may significantly undermine the state’s efforts at nationalist mobilization and thus limit its capability to pursue external expansion or other strategic goals.

Wen Zha

Institute of International Relations

China Foreign Affairs University

Beijing

China

1 Introduction......................................... 1
1.1 The Argument: Individual Choice and State Accumulation . . . . . 2
1.2 Conceptualization and Operationalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Outcomes of Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Perception of Foreign Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Domestic Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Case Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Nationalism in Present-Day China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.5 Book Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 Explaining State-Led Nationalist Movements: Individual
Choice and State Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Situating the Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.1 Rational Elites, Emotional Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.1.2 Is a Mass-Based Instrumentalist Explanation
Possible?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1.3 Self-interests and Group Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Explaining Mass Nationalist Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2 Why Does Nationalism Matter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3 Explaining Participation: What Motivates
Individuals to Participate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.4 Explaining Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.5 Bringing the Two Components Together. . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3 Alternative Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.1 Cultural Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.2 Ethnic Animosities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3 The New Life Movement in Jiangxi: Weak Threat
Perceptions, Pro-minority Institutions, and the Limits
of Nationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.1 Is the New Life Movement a Nationalist Movement? . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.1 The Rationale of the New Life Movement:
From Daily Habits to National Revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.1.2 Cleaning Up Cities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.1.3 Rehabilitating the Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.2 Assessing the Outcome of New Life Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.2.1 Agricultural Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.2 State Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.2.3 Cleanliness and Orderliness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 The Public’s Weak Perception of Foreign Threats . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.1 Nationalist Mobilization Without a Foreign Enemy . . . . . 50
3.3.2 Effects on Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 The Restoration of Pro-minority Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.1 Returning the Land to the Original Owners . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4.2 Effects on Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.5 Alternative Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5.1 Policy Implementation by Local Officials . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.5.2 Domestic Contenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5.3 The Superficiality of the New Life Movement . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5.4 Top-Down Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5.5 Customs and Cultural Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4 Sichuan During the Sino-Japanese War: Strong Threat
Perceptions, Pro-minority Institutions, and the Limited
Success of Nationalist Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1 The Outcome of Nationalist Mobilization: A Limited Success . . . 69
4.1.1 Industrial and Agricultural Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1.2 State Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.3 Conscription . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Strong Perception of Foreign Threats and Mass Participation . . . . 74
4.2.1 The Industrial Relocation at the Onset of the War . . . . . . 74
4.2.2 Japanese Air Raids and Mobilization in Free China . . . . . 77
4.3 Pro-minority Institutions and Their Effects on Nationalist
Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.1 Pro-minority Economic Institutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.2 Pro-minority Political Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.3 Effects on Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4 Alternative Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.1 Central–Local Relations and Mobilization
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.2 Ethnic Animosities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5 The Lower Yangtze Region During the Korean War:
Strong Threat Perceptions, Pro-majority Institutions,
and Successful Nationalist Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.1 The Outcomes of Wartime Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.1.1 Restoration of Domestic Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.1.2 Increase in State Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.1.3 State Control over Citizens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2 Strong Perception of Foreign Threats and Mass Participation . . . . 99
5.2.1 The Public’s Perception of Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.2.2 Public Fear and State Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.2.3 Effects on Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.3 Pro-majority Institutions and Mass Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.3.1 Labor Insurance System and the Urban Population. . . . . . 105
5.3.2 Land Reform and the Rural Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.3.3 Effects on Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4 Alternative Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.1 Emotive Nationalism and Animosities Toward
Foreign Enemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.4.2 State Coercion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6 The Great Leap Forward in Sichuan: Weak Threat
Perceptions, Hybrid Institutions, and the Mixed
Outcomes of Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.1 Evaluating the Outcome of Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.1.1 Agricultural Production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.1.2 State Accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.1.3 Small Industries and Construction Projects . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.2 Weak Threat Perceptions and Their Effects on Mobilization . . . . 123
6.2.1 The Second Taiwan Strait Crisis and the
Anti-American Campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.2.2 Effects on Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3 Domestic Institutions and Their Effects on Mobilization . . . . . . . 127
6.3.1 Collectivization: From Pro-majority Institutions
to Pro-state Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
6.3.2 Effects on Mobilization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4 Alternative Explanations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.1 Disincentive Effects of Collectivization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.2 The One-Time Game Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.4.3 Unscientific Methods of Agricultural Production . . . . . . . 135
6.4.4 Egalitarianism in the People’s Commune . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.1 A Summary of Arguments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.2 Implications and Two Additional Minor Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.2.1 The Nationalist Mobilization in Germany
Before WWI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.2.2 Spain in the Late Nineteenth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.2.3 A Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.3 Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
· · · · · · (收起)